Prevalence rates of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are increasing across the globe, with urbanisation and changes in diets fuelling a particularly rapid increase in Africa [1]. For instance, in Sudan, the prevalence of T2DM has increased substantially over the last thirty-forty years, driven primarily by a reliance on traditional diets rich in carbohydrates.   An increase in blood glucose levels after eating can result in endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and a deterioration in long-term glycaemic control. Postprandial glycaemic fluctuations (PPG) are now viewed as reliable predictors of microvascular complications and cardiovascular disease [2,3,4]. To manage diabetes effectively, there is a vital need for strategies designed to support postprandial glycaemic control.   By categorising foods according to their impact on blood glucose levels compared with glucose, the glycaemic index (GI) can serve as a useful indicator of carbohydrate quality [5]. This is because glucose from high GI foods is absorbed extremely quickly, leading to an acute insulin response, whereas low GI foods result in slower rates of absorption and blood glucose levels that are more stable [6]. Both the GI response and post-meal blood glucose levels are significantly impacted by the protein, fibre, and fat content of food, in conjunction with cooking and preparation methods [7].   In Sudan, the diet is strongly dependent on sorghum and millet, which are prepared as sorghum porridge and/or kisra (a flatbread). Such foods are low in protein and fiber and usually high in carbohydrates. Wheat bread is also regularly eaten with legumes. Research carried out in a number of African countries has identified foods made from sorghum and millet as being a strong source of nutrients [8]. However, the GI of sorghum porridge is believed to range from medium to high. This GI can, however, be lowered by fermentation, such as in sorghum kisra, because gastric emptying is slowed by the presence of organic acids [9]. A low GI is usually found in legumes like beans and lentils as their protein and fibre content is high [10].   Numerous studies have been conducted to control and manage blood glucose levels after meals. A study by Shaheen et al. in the United Arab Emirates (2024) demonstrated that consuming vegetables and protein before rice reduces the area of ​​the blood glucose concentration curve by 40% [11]. Similarly, another study found that consuming carbohydrates at the end of a meal significantly reduces fluctuations in blood glucose and insulin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes [12]. These studies could be beneficial in Sudan, where modifying the composition or order of traditional meals may help reduce the burden of hyperglycemia.   This study was done to evaluate the postprandial glucose and insulin responses to commonly consumed Sudanese traditional carbohydrate-based meals among adults with T2DM and to compare findings result with previous studies evidence.

Randomized crossover feeding trial.   Participants 120 adults with T2DM, aged 30–60, attending [clinic/hospital]. Inclusion: stable oral therapy, HbA1c ≤9%. Exclusion: insulin therapy, pregnancy, renal/hepatic disease.   Test Meals   Meal 1: Sorghum Kisra with mulah tagalia Meal 2: Sorghum Porridge with milk Meal 3: Gorasa with damaa Meal 4: Millet Porridge with milk Meal 5: Adassia   Each standardized to 50 g available carbohydrate.   Protocol Participants fasted overnight. On three separate test days, each consumed one test meal. Venous blood samples collected at 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min postprandially.   Assays and Analysis Plasma glucose measured enzymatically; serum insulin measured using ELISA. Incremental AUC calculated. Repeated-measures ANOVA used for analysis. p<0.05 significant.

iAUC, GI and GL results for mixed meals are presented in Table 1 and 2.   This study provides novel insight into the postprandial glycemic and insulinemic effects of five traditional Sudanese meals responses in T2DM patients.   Gorasa with Damaa displayed the highest GI and II, attributed to its refined oil and high fat content, which delay but magnify glucose absorption [13-14]. Adassia and Kisra with Mulah Tagalia elicited the lowest glycemic responses to higher fiber and protein content and fermentation effects, consistent with prior African and Middle Eastern studies [15-19].   Table 1: Postprandial Glycemic Responses (iAUC), GI and GL of Mixed Meals (n = 30) Mixed Meal Mean iAUC (glucose = 100) GI (Mean±SD) Available Carbohydrate per portion (g) GL per portion Sorghum Kisra with mulah tagalia 55 55±8 44 24 Sorghum Porridge + milk 60 60±9 37 22 Gorasa with damaa 50 50±7 40 20 Millet Porridge + milk 56 56±8 39 22 Adassia 48 48±6 37 18   Table 2: Comparison of Fasting Reading of Four Types of Foods during the Time Period after Eating Four Types of Food Food item Fasting 1/2 h 1h 11/2h 2h Adassia 195.17 225.20 246.23 259.03 245.40 Differences 30.03 51.07 63.86 50.233 Millet Porridge + milk 188.87 210.10 226.40 241.87 245.03 Differences 21.23 37.53 53.00 56.17 Sorghum Porridge with milk 209.77 224.77 248.17 241.87 240.63 Differences 15 38.40 32.10 30.87 Sorghum Kisra with mulah tagalia 212.73 218.70 242.10 249.90 264.33 Differences 5.967 29.37 37.17 51.60 Gorasa with damaa 198.73 211.69 224.10 230.90 253.33 Differences 12.96 25.37 32.17 54.60     Figure 1: The Plasma Insulin Incremental Responses after Ingestion of     Figure 2: Postprandial Glucose Response Curves for Five Sudanese Meal     Figure 3: Postprandial Insulin Response Curves for Five Sudanese Meal     Figure 4: Correlation between Glycemic Index (GI) and Insulin Index (II) for Five Sudanese Meal   Sorghum Porridge with milk elicited the lowest PPG and Millet Porridge with milk had intermediate GI values, likely due to the moderating effects of milk protein, which delays gastric emptying and stimulates a gradual insulinotropic effect. These results are consistent with studies by Shukla et al. [12] and Jenkins et al. [20], who demonstrated that consuming protein before meals led to a reduction in blood glucose levels. The positive correlation between the glucose and insulin indices (r = 0.86) is consistent with findings from studies conducted in Egypt and Ethiopia [21,22], confirming that insulin secretion parallels the rise in glucose levels but is influenced by the composition of the food consumed (Figure 1-4).   Fermentation processes and legume-containing foods exhibit significant glycemic control, and these findings are consistent with regional and global data on low-glycemic-index diets [23,24]. Therefore, promoting these diets and raising health and nutritional awareness can help improve glycemic management in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

Underscoring the variation in how blood sugar levels are impacted by common traditional meals, this research provides further evidence specific to Sudanese food. Most notably, it indicates that the body's response to blood sugar levels, given existing dietary habits and patterns, can be substantially improved by making several dietary changes. These include using fermented products, consuming proteins such as legumes with grains, or adjusting the timing of meals. These results can therefore form the basis of methods to reduce post-meal spikes in blood sugar among patients with T2DM.   Recommendations   Encourage people to eat vegetables/protein before consuming carbohydrates Create food classification tables, including both the GI and glycaemic load, specific to Sudanese meals Increase the amount of legumes eaten with staple grain-based foods Conduct health and nutrition awareness campaigns on foods that assist in maintaining stable blood glucose levels, particularly for diabetics Carry out additional research in this crucial field